Social inclusion and social cohesion are both usually seen as being positive attributes of society, with the ideal society being seen as both inclusive and cohesive. Yet some of the most cohesive societies, while being holistically inclusive of their citizens who conform, are also exclusionary of both non-conforming citizens and non-citizen residents. On the other hand, some of the least exclusionary societies often have low levels of social cohesion, partly because they welcome diversity, difference and multiculturalism. Three strands are discussed in this paper: migration; identity; and welfare. Migration, both within East Asian and on a global scale, is one of the defining characteristics of contemporary society and has substantial economic and social consequences - both positive and negative - for all but the most isolated and inward-looking societies. Loss of resourceful and skilled human resources counterbalanced by income from remittances affects emigrant countries whereas cheap skilled immigrant labour and potential social destabilisation and schism affects destination countries. Identity, particularly national identity, has always been strongly related to social cohesion and social inclusion. The historically complex identity discourses in East Asia (mainly, but not exclusively, related to Chinese identity) have become more complicated with the growth in transnational identity, among second generation Asian migrants in America and Europe as well as among intra-Asian migrants. Welfare is a problematic issue in relation to inclusion and cohesion. A highly cohesive society which provides extensive state welfare services (and is thus highly inclusive to its citizens) usually has also to be highly exclusionary, preventing, guest workers, asylum seekers, refugees and even legal immigrants from claiming full benefits. The paper concludes with a brief discussion of the social quality theoretical approach which incorporated social cohesion and social inclusion, as well as socio-economic security and empowerment, within its overarching structure.
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